The Development of Resilence in Contemporary Youth a Literature Review

Today's youth face numerous challenges. For this literature review, resiliency is defined as the ability to thrive in spite of risk or adversity. The school setting is one environment which may allow for maximum resilience growth to occur in young individuals. Factors that may also influence the degree of youth resilience acquired include child temperament, attachment, mentoring, gender and age, intelligence, self-awareness, parenting style, peers, and school and community involvement. Reducing risk factors and enhancing protective factors also greatly impacts resilience development in youth. Implemented within a rural Kansas county, The Rural Underpinnings for Resiliency and Linkages (RLTRAL) project combines both the schools and community to assist in strengthening resilience development by way of service provision to at-risk youth and their families. School psychologists held key roles in several aspects of the program. Initial findings regarding provision of services, methods of service implementation, and program evaluation outcomes are presented and discussed. TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... .Page . . .......................................................................................... ABSTRACT -11 ................................................................................. Chapter I: Introduction 1 ........................................................................... Statement of the Purpose 8 ................................................................................. Research Objective 9 ................................................................................. Dejnition of Terms 9 .................................................................... Assumptions and Limitations -10 ..................................................................... Chapter 11: Literature Review 11 ....................................................................................... Introduction -11 ................................................................................ Child Temperament 11 ........................................................................................ Attachment -12 ......................................................................................... Mentoring -13 ................................................................................... Gender and Age 13 ........................................................................................ Intelligence -14 .................................................................................... Self-Awareness 15 .................................................................................... Parenting Style 16 ................................................................................................. Peers 1 7 ............................................................ School and Community Involvement 17 Reducing Risk Factors ............................................................................. 18 ..................................................................... Enhancing Protective Factors 18 History of the Rural Underpinnings for ...................................................... Resiliency and Linkages (RURAL) Project 19 RURAL Framework . The Development of the ........................................................... RURAL Partnerships and Coalitions 21 .................................................................. Strategy Selection Component 23 ........................................................................... Prevention Component 24 .......................................................................... Intervention Component 26 ............................................................................ Treatment Component 27 ............................................................... Community Outreach Component 29 ............................................................... The Role of School Psychologists 30 ................................. Evaluation Planning and Process Evaluation Development 31 ...................................................... School and Community Climate Surveys 33 ........................................................................... Climate Administration 34 ..................................................................... Impact Outcome Evaluation 35 ............................................................................ Case Study Interviews 35 ......................................................... Success of Research-Based Programs 36 .................................................. Chapter 111: Summary and Recommendations 38 ....................................................... Limitations of the Current Investigation 39 ................................... Implications and Recommendations for Future Research 39 ......................................................................................... Conclusion 42 ............................................................................................ References 43 Chapter I: Introduction Youth in contemporary society seem to possess a substantially higher level of potential for encountering adversity compared to their counterparts of generations past. Such adversity includes surviving within an era of technological advances, dramatic transitions in family life, in addition to mastering competency skills associated with developing productive relationships (Frydenburg, 2004). This being said, it then seems reasonable to deduce that, "The fostering of personal agency is an important component in inoculating young people against [adversity] and equipping them with life management skills" (Frydenberg, 2004,12). One such context for maximum growth to occur within the area of resiliency encompasses the educational setting. Resiliency is generally defined as the ability to thrive in spite of adversity (Bentro & Longhurst, 2005). Schools set the stage for both the framework and foundation of youth resiliency in that both teachers and other educational professionals become valuable adult influences within young individuals' lives. According to Smith & Carlson (1 997), teachers are "A frequent, nonparent adult resource" for children (p.239). They provide a solid source of support and also act as a determinant for student success (Frydenberg, 2004). According to Frydenberg, "The most significant amount of students' time apart from family is spent with teachers, who are often the most important connection for a young person [as well as] the first contact for many issues and services" (2004, p.19 ). Segal (1988) contends the development of resilience in youth can partially be attributed to the presence of one charismatic adult, a person with whom they can identify and gather strength. Interestingly, this individual takes on the form of a teacher (as cited in Bracken, 2000). Furthermore, teachers and other school faculty have been trained to recognize and understand the diverse types of social and emotional issues that arise from students within their progression through the educational system (Frydenberg, 2004). If not identified and remedied, these personal dilemmas experienced by youth can manifest into more serious circumstances which may then negatively impact the youth, school, and the surrounding community. It appears when the notion of resilience in youth was first investigated by human development and educational scholars, it was initially conceptualized in models and theories as an entity possessed individually. Both external and internal environmental factors may have influenced the degree to which a young individual acquired resiliencebased characteristics, as resilience is a aggregate of inners strengths and external supports (Lerner & Benson, 2003, as cited in Brendtro & Longhurst, 2005), but the theoretical frameworks predominately focused upon resilience as only possessed by the individual person. One popular theory emphasizing this assumption is comprised of Resiliency Theory (LeBuffe & IVaglieri, 2003) and the importance of developmental assets and protective factors. This framework provided the contention that certain developmental assets paved the way for the formation of protective factors in youth. These factors buffered the negative impact of risk factors (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 2003). Children who possessed a substantial number of strong protective factors were more apt to be resilient and achieve typical developmental outcomes when confronted with risk and adversity. Children who demonstrated weak protective factors were more likely to encounter negative outcomes when faced with adversity or the opportunity to engage in risk-taking behaviors (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 2003). Benson (1 997) ascertained youth can acquire specific internal and external assets which serve as positive agents in building resilience (as cited in Simms-Shepard, 2004). Internal assets include commitment to learning, positive values, social competencies, and positive identity. External assets often consist of support, empowerment, boundaries, expectations, and constructive use of time (Simms-Shepard, 2004). With the progression of time also came the initial steps of an evolutional shift in resilience. Rather than primarily associating this term with solely the individual, it was now also applied to the familial context. Resilience models and theories now focused upon understanding certain family strengths and capabilities which safeguarded the familial network from crises and disruptions associated with a variety of stressors (Lustig, 1999). One such model includes the Resiliency Model of Family Stress, Adjustment, and Adaptation. This framework served as a basis in answering the critical question of why certain families deteriorated when faced with change or crises while other families encountered troubling situations with relative ease by identifying new patterns and resorting and revising former patterns of functioning (McCubbin et al, 1996, as cited in Lustig, 1 999). The next transformation regarding youth resilience occurred by way of developing school-oriented resilience models and then implemented these into the academic institutions. Schools have achieved phenomenal success by integrating resilience-based programs. Many educational professionals have found, "When a protective environment is established, students will achieve academically and will be less inclined to participate in unsafe and dangerous behaviors (Bowers, 2004,y 1). Furthermore, "By increasing protective factors in schools, students will have more opportunities to achieve academically and will be less vulnerable to becoming involved with such things as alcohol, tobacco, drugs, gangs, violence and sexual activity" (Bowers, 2004, 1). The last transition within the evolution of resilience-based theory occurred via the creation of models and frameworks emphasizing the importance of community involvement in youth resilience development. Understanding resilience in the context of the individual, family, and school is critical, but to also recognize youth resilience as a community responsibility creates increased opportunities for young individuals to acquire and display resilience and coping mechanisms in a long-term fashion, possibly spanning their entire lives (Doron, 2005). One model which has been associated with resilience includes Urie Brofenbrenner's Ecological model. Though often utilized in disciplines such as the environmental sciences, this framework can also be applied to the fields of psychology, education, and human development. Brofenbrenner's work consists of an approach emphasizing the notion that each individual is affected by experiences and interactions spanning over several overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model lies the individual. The first ecosystem level to interact with the individual is deemed the Microsystem. This consists of the family, classroom, peers, neighborhood, and church. The next level is comprised of the Exosystem which includes the school, community, health agencies, and mass media. The last ecosystem level is referred to as the Macrosystem and constitutes political systems, economics, society, nationality, and the culture overall (Psychology Portal, Grand Theories in Psychology, n.d.). Though it may not seem initially apparent how resilience is related to each system or to the Ecological framework, both the systems and Brofenbrenner's theory overall play an integral role in understanding how resilience is acquired and maintained by youth. When scholars first defined the concept of resilience, they only applied and generalized it to the individual. Gradually, it was found resilience also rested in families, schools, and communities. These institutions, which also make up two of Brofenbrenner's systems (Microsystem and Exosystem), play crucial roles in assisting in the process of teaching individual youth how to cope and become resourceful individuals in spite of adversity and negative circumstances. They also impact one another in terms of the degree of success each youth achieved in gaining protective factors and resilience-based traits. Political systems, found within the Macrosystem level, are also influential, as they delegate money towards resiliency programming. Another system, the entire culture itself (Macrosystem), delineates the specific norms, rules, and values that define the importance of youth resilience development. This is the same culture that may become hostile towards youth, both presently and in the future as they grow into adults. It is important youth experience and acquire protective factors early on within their lives so they are able to cope and thrive when life becomes stressful and difficult. In sum, it appears all of Brofenbrenner's systems within the Ecological model play upon and influence one another in shaping young individuals' abilities to survive when adverse circumstances are encountered. It is clear that incorporating programming which stems from a school and/or community-based resiliency model can demonstrate positive and profitable consequences for young people. When protective factors and rules and expectations of appropriate and acceptable youth behavior are consistently integrated by larger community, youth are more inclined to acquire resilience and be protected from risk at the highest level (Resiliency Factors, Partners for Peace, n.d.) Utilizing a school or community-based resilience model also assists in emphasizing important issues that may help all young individuals and their families deal with significant changes and adverse life experiences (Doron, 2005). Communities can be organized to construct strengths (Brendtro & Longhurst, 2005). When both schools and communities bestow opportunities for positive development, youngsters thrive and achieve their potential (Brendtro & Longhurst, 2005). One solution for both reinforcing and cultivating resiliency characteristics within young people involves integrating school and community-based programs, which not only provide the opportunity to acquire these skills, but also enhance a youth's overall functioning and well-being. As a result, it is beneficial that school-based programming which strives toward the goal of increasing the quality of students' social and emotional affect be developed and implemented (Frydenberg, 2004). One such invaluable resource includes the Rural Underpinnings for Resiliency and Linkages (RURAL) project. The Rural Underpinnings for Resiliency and Linkages (RURAL) is a needs-based program which provides services to children, youth, and families in a rural Kansas county. It was developed to focus on closing specific gaps in services provided to at-risk and high-risk youth and families, in addition to accentuating prevention of aspects that could increase at-risk behaviors (Paige, Kitzis, & Wolfe, 2003). Founded from the public-health model, RURAL is divided into five project functions which consist of prevention, intervention, treatment, community outreach, and evaluation components. The RURAL program first identifies the most conducive method of strategy selection for a school and community by way of determining risk factors, community needs, and available resources. The prevention component integrates schoolbased activities which targets preschool through middle school students (due to the greater chance for prevention of risk behaviors to occur). The intervention component includes social work staff who are assigned to particular schools or programs. Individual and family services are then implemented by this staff within either the home or school setting, with an emphasis placed on family-driven and solution-focused strategies. The treatment component includes the provision of support and assistance from a mental health facility. Also established was a learning center which provides resources related to dropout prevention and recovery for at-risk individuals. Childcare services, evening hours, as well as Adult Basic Education and English as a Second Language instruction are also incorporated. The community outreach component encompasses the creation, dispersion, and integration of numerous RURAL programs on both the local and national level which consist of various types of information, strategies, and resources related to resilience development. Lastly, the evaluation component is comprised of extensive supervision and analyses conducted assessing the level of comprehensive progress made towards of project goals and objectives (Paige, Kitzis, & Wolfe, 2003). The public health model demonstrates an eclectic approach by fostering partnerships between various disciplines, professions, organizations, and community stakeholders in which health concerns and changes of personal practices hold eminent interest and become key goals (Paige, Kitzis, & Wolfe, 2003). Other goals comprise of increasing student perceptions of school safety and promoting the development of resilience competencies within all students. Compared to the medical model which solely emphasizes the diagnosis and treatment of illness, the public health perspective offers more than this in that it holds a more applied, goal-oriented, community and school-based method for health advancement and maintenance. This approach accomplishes these tasks by recognizing problems and creating solutions for certain population groups via data collection describing the nature, incidence, trends, and prevalence of the problem. Following the determination of risk and protective factors, universal and effective interventions are constructed and education endeavors are coordinated to establish public awareness on these specific issues (U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, 2001, as cited in Paige, Kitzis, & Wolfe, 2003). Crucial to the key development, implementation, and management of this project includes school psychologists who educate and offer technical assistance to school staff to sustain and extend specific programs. School psychologists are intentionally placed at the forefront within the RURAL project due to their high skill level demonstrated in executing a proactive, leadership-based role within the educational and community contexts. Acting as facilitators within the consultation process, school psychologists are catalysts for managing school activities, and assistants in the development of strategic plan designs for crisis response and bullying prevention within the RURAL program (Paige, Kitzis, & Wolfe, 2003). Statement of the Purpose For this thesis, a literature review will be conducted regarding the history of the RURAL project, a description of the five components, as well as a critical analysis of the research supporting the five components and the RURAL project. Literature will be reviewed and collected between January and May of 2006. Research Objective The main objective of this study is to investigate and document evidence supporting the Rural Underpinnings for Resiliency and Linkages (RURAL) project. Definition of Terms For purposes of this literature review, ten tenns will be defined to establish further clarification within this investigation. Attachment A mutual, strong, long-lasting relationship between a child and signzj'icant adults such as parents, other family members, and teachers (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 2003). Developmental Assets The foundation ofhealthy development that can assist youth in growing up to be healthy, caring, and responsible (Benson, 1997, as cited in Simms-Shepard, 2004). External Assets Resources provided by outside individuals andor institutions (Benson, 1997, as cited in Simms-Shepard, 2004). Internal Assets Resources possessed internally by youth (Benson, 1 997, as cited in Simms-Shepard, 2004). Protective Factors Characteristics, attitudes, or environmental circumstances that assist an individual, a family, andor a community in learning to cope, adapt, and adjust to everyday stressors (Cooper, Estes & Allen, 2004). Parenting Style A complex set of enduring attitudes and beliefs regarding parenting (Prevatt, 2003). Risk Factors Circumstances that increase the likelihood a youth will develop an emotional or behavioral disorder compared with children fiom the general population (Gannezy, as cited in Smith & Carlson, 1997). Temperament A child's disposition (Smith & Carlson, 1997). Self-Awareness The ability to recognize and acknowledge one's strengths and weaknesses, accept one's reality, and strive toward one's future potential (Hippe, 2004). Youth Individuals agesJive through eighteen years of age. Assumptions and Limitations It is assumed the research reviewed and incorporated into this thesis is valid, unbiased, and reliable. It is also assumed that the benefits assessed within the RURAL program are measurable and accurate. One limitation includes the narrow method of literature collection in that most resources were derived from the university library. Another limitation includes both the intentional and unintentional biases exuded from the researcher on the subject of youth resilience. In addition, further biases may be implemented by the authors of the articles utilized within this literature review in that several of the articles used support the benefits of both youth resilience and the RURAL program. Additionally, the rural nature of this program may limit its effectiveness and generalizability to more urban populations. Chapter I1 Literature Review